According to UNAIDS estimates, there are now 33.2 million people living with HIV, including 2.5 million children. During 2007 some 2.5 million people became newly infected with the virus. Around half of all people who become infected with HIV do so before they are 25 and are killed by AIDS before they are 35.
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Saturday, November 29, 2008
Friday, November 28, 2008
MONOGRAPH ON Curcuma domestica
Curcuma domestica.
Family: Zingiberaceae
Genus: Curcuma
Most common species: Curcuma longa
Number of Curcuma Species: 70
Part used: Rhizome (Root)
Botanical name: Curcuma domestica syn C.longa
Common name: Turmeric (Besar)
Habitat
Curcuma longa, a perennial herb, is a member of the Zingiberaceae (ginger) family. The plant grows to a height of three to five feet, and is cultivated extensively in Asia, India, China, and other countries with a tropical climate. Indigenous to south Asian countries, especially India, turmeric is now commercially grown across southern and eastern Asian nations. Unlike many other herbs, turmeric is grown from root grafts and requires a soil with excellent drainage and moist conditions. The bulb of the herb is collected during the winter.
History
The use of turmeric as a coloring agent for food and fabric dates as far back as 600 B.C. Marco Polo, in 1280, mentioned turmeric in notes of his travels in China: "There is also a vegetable that has all the properties of true saffron, as well as the smell and the color, and yet it is not really saffron." In medieval Europe, turmeric was known as "Indian saffron." Since then, turmeric has been used as an inexpensive substitute for saffron.
According to Michael Moriarty, “The ancient Hawaiians used this herb for many things, including the prevention and treatment of sinus infections (it is very astringent and appears to pull mucus out), ear infections (swimmers ear) and gastrointestinal ulcers.”
Turmeric is eaten as a food both raw and cooked throughout Asia.While turmeric root looks much like ginger root, it is less fibrous and is more chewable, crunchy, and succulent.The fresh root (not the powder) has a somewhat sweet and nutty favor mixed with its bitter flavor.As a result, it is not unpleasant to eat and not difficult to chew.It is sometimes chewed plain or chopped up and put in salads raw.Traditional use includes mashing/grinding it in a mortar to make a paste to mix with other spices for flavoring in curries.In modern times, the most common use is of the dried root powder as the base of most curries in India and other nearby countries.(personal observation)
The old herbals of Europe make little if any mention of turmeric.Marco Polo refers to turmeric as Indian saffron used for dying cloth.Michael Castleman writing in 1991 says: “The ancient Greeks were well aware of turmeric, but unlike its close botanical relative, ginger, it never caught on in the West as either a culinary or medicinal herb.It was, however, used to make orange-yellow dyes.In the 1870’s, chemists discovered turmeric’s orange-yellow root powder turned reddish brown when exposed to alkaline chemicals This discovery led to the development of turmeric paper … to test for alkalinity.”
European and American herbalists up until the late 20th century had little interest in turmeric. However, even as Maude Grieve was writing, the roots of turmeric’s emergence as a prominent healing herb were starting to grow.Daniel B. Mowrey tells the story: “Serious research on turmeric began in Germany, in the early 1920’s. Sesquisterpenes in the essential oil of turmeric were isolated in 1926 and to them was ascribed the therapeutic activity.Later, a team of scientists compared the effects of whole extract, the essential oil, and the water-soluble extract. … In 1936, … curcumin was compared to whole extract and several isolated constituents. … The results of the experiment show that turmeric acts in the following ways:
Turmeric stimulates the flow of bile; several constituents have this property.
The increased flow of bile depend in part on the contraction of the gallbladder and in part on the increase in bile secretion;
The stimulation of bile depends mostly on the presence of essential oil;
The flavonoids cause the contraction of the gallbladder and thereby increase the effective emptying of this organ.”
In the early years of the 20th century, most allopathic medicines were based on herbs. Even as late as the 1940s, about half of all prescriptions still contained herbal ingredients. Turmeric has been mentioned in early writings of the world in many languages. The Unani practitioners, such as Hakeem Hashmi, have used it all over the world, as well as other systems of medicines. It was prescribed by Unani physicians as a drug to strengthen the stomach, and promoted as a tonic and blood purifier.
The genus name Curcuma is from an Arabic word "kurkum," meaning "saffron," in reference to the color of turmeric. The actual word "turmeric" is from Medieval Latin, terra merita, meaning "deserving earth."
Botany
General description
Curcuma longa, a perennial herb, is a member of the Zingiberaceae (ginger) family. The plant grows to a height of three to five feet, and is cultivated extensively in Asia, India, China, and other countries with a tropical climate. It has oblong, pointed leaves and bears funnel-shaped yellow flowers. (1) The rhizome is the portion of the plant used medicinally; it is usually boiled, cleaned, and dried, yielding a yellow powder. Dried Curcuma longa is the source of the spice turmeric, the ingredient that gives curry powder its characteristic yellow color. Turmeric is used extensively in foods for both its flavor and color. Turmeric has a long tradition of use in the Chinese and Ayurvedic systems of medicine, particularly as an anti-inflammatory agent, and for the treatment of flatulence, jaundice, menstrual difficulties, hematuria, hemorrhage, and colic. Turmeric can also be applied topically in poultices to relieve pain and inflammation. (2) Current research has focused on turmeric's antioxidant, hepatoprotective, anti-inflammatory, anticarcinogenic, and antimicrobial properties, in addition to its use in cardiovascular disease and gastrointestinal disorders.
Histology
Leaf
Fresh leaves on steam distillation produced an oil in 0.15% yield. The leaf oil of C. longa from Vietnam has been reported to contain α-phellandrene (24.5%), 1,8-cineole (15.9%),p-cymene (13.2%) and β-pinene (8.9%) as the major components, while the oil from Bhutan had a similar chemical composition except that terpinolene (11.6%) was one of the major constituents (1,2). Another report on the oil from the plains of northern India showed the presence of terpinolene (26.4%), 1,8-cineole (9.5%), α-phellandrene (8.0%) and terpinen-4-ol (7.4%) as the major constituents (3).
Flower
Rhizome
The rhizome is the portion of the plant used medicinally; it is usually boiled, cleaned, and dried, yielding a yellow powder. Dried Curcuma longa is the source of the spice turmeric,the ingredient that gives curry powder its characteristic yellow color.
Seed
Seed Biology
The ovule after fertilization develops into the seed with its coats completely fused together with the developing ovary wall or pericarp. The rice grain has the following structures.
The Pericarp or Fruit Coat
The pericarp is made up of distinct layers of quadrangular cells which forms the epicarp. These cells have slight thickening and are followed by cells which are much compressed and form the mesocarp consisting of two to three layers.
The endocarp is single layer of tube cells. The colour in the rice grain is found in the pericarp layer in the mature stage.
The Seed Coats
Due to the pressure brought out by the developing seed on the pericarp, the testa and tegmen become much pressed down and out of shape. A few layers of such cells below the pericarp can be diagnosed as the integuments of seed coats.
Aleurone Layer
A prominent layer of rectangular cells which contain protein lies next to the seed cents. This layer is known as the aleurone layer. This layer in rice is not coloured unlike in the case of maize.
It has been observed that in coloured varieties of rice, the aleurone layer is thicker than in the white rice varieties. The coarse rice generally have a larger aleurone layer than the finer rice. It has also been found that in poor soils, the aleurone layer is thin and improves in thickness with the fertility of the soil and manure.
The Endosperm
The entire mass of tissue below the aleurone layer is made up of cells which contain plenty of starch grains and these form the endosperm.
The Embryo
The scutellum has an upper free part which has a flesh projection known as ventral scale. Below this upper ventral scale and almost at the middle of the free part there is another out growth which can be called as the 'inner ventral scale' and this inner ventral scale is peculiar to rice embryos only.
On the surface of the embryo this out growth along with the epiblast forms a continuous covering around the plumule. The structure between the scutellum and the plumule is the mesocotyl.
Agronomy
Natural requirement
Plants require 16 essential elements for their normal growth and development.
The essential elements exist as structural components of a cell, maintain cellular organizations, function in energy transformations and in enzyme reaction.
Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen are three naturally occurring nutrients and form about 94 per cent of the dry weight of plants. These are the major components of carbohydrates, proteins and fats. Besides their structural role, they provide energy required for the growth and development of plants by oxidative breakdown of carbohydrates, proteins and fats during cellular respiration.
Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium are three major or primary nutrients which are to be made available in larger quantities.
Nitrogen is an essential constituent of metabolically active compounds such as aminoacids, proteins, enzymes and some non-proteinous compounds. When nitrogen is a limiting factor, the rate and extent of protein synthesis are depressed and as a result plant growth is affected. The plant gets stunted and develops chlorosis.
Phosphorus is a structural component of all membranes, chloroplasts and mitochondria and a constituent of sugar phosphates, viz., ADP, ATP, nucleic acid, Phospholipids and phosphatides. Phosphorus plays an important role in energy transformations and metabolic processes in plants. It stimulates root growth.
Potassium plays an important role in the maintenance of cellular organisations by regulating permeability of cell membranes and keeping the protoplasm in a proper degree of hydration. It activates the enzymes in protein and carbohydrate metabolism and translocation of carbohydrates and imparts resistance to plants against fungal and bacterial disease.
Calcium, magnesium and sulphur are secondary nutrients which are required in relatively smaller but in appreciable quantities. Calcium, a constituent of the cell wall, an activator of different plant enzymes and is essential for the stability of cell membranes.
Sulphur is required to synthesize the sulphur containing amino acids and proteins, activity of proteolytic enzymes and increases oil content in oil bearing plants.
Iron, zinc, manganese, copper, boron, molybdenum and chlorine are required by plants in small quantities for their growth and development. Hence they are known as micronutrients or trace elements. The very fact that the micronutrient elements are required by plants in very low concentration suggests that they all function as catalysts or at least closely linked with some catalytic processes in plants. Manganese, zinc and copper are components of certain biological oxidation-reduction systems. Manganese performs some function in photosynthesis, acts as regulator to the intake and state of oxidation of certain elements. Zinc is concerned with the functioning of Sulphydryl compounds such as cystein, in the regulation of oxidation - reduction potential within the cells. Copper is a constituent of cytochrome oxidase and component of many enzymes like ascorbic acid oxidase, phenolase and lactase. Molybdenum is a constituent of nitrate reductase and nitrogenase enzyme and is associated with nitrogen utilization and in nitrogen fixation. Chlorine stimulates the activity of some enzymes and influences carbohydrate metabolism.
Boron helps in cell development by its influence on polysaccharide formation. It regulates translocation of sugars across membranes and polyphenolase activity. Iron is a constituent of cytochromes, haem and non haem enzymes. Perhaps the best known role of iron is its catalytic role in enzyme activity.
Fertilizers
Organic Fertilizers and Manures
Organic fertilizers include both plant and animal bi-products. They are slow acting. Organic nitrogen fertilizers include oil cakes, fish manure, dried blood from slaughter houses etc., where as organic phosphorus from bone meal and organic potassium from cattle dung ash, wood ash, leaf mould, tobacco stems and water hyacinth.
Organic manures
Manures are organic or inorganic substances applied to the soil to supply one or more nutrients to plants to obtain increased yields.
Manures are classified as follows
Inorganic Fertilizers
Nitrogen
Nitrogen is the first fertilizer element of the macronutrients usually applied in commercial fertilizers. Nitrogen is very important nutrient for plants and it seems to have the quickest and most pronounced effect.
Roles of nitrogen in plants
Nitrogen is of special importance in the formation of protein in plants,
It forms a constituent of every living cells in the plants,
It is also present in chlorophyll,
It is involved in photosynthesis, respiration and protein synthesis,
It plays an important role in vegetative growth and it imparts dark green colour to plants.
If excess nitrogen is applied it delays ripening by encouraging more vegetative growth. The leaves acquire a dark green colour, become thick and leathery and in some cases crinkled The plants become more liable to attack of pests and diseases. In case of cereal crops, the straw becomes weak, and the crop very often lodges and straw and grain ratio is increased. Excess nitrogen deteriorates the quality of some crops such as potato, barley and sugarcane. It delays reproductive growth and may adversely affect fruit and grain quality.
The deficiency of Nitrogen leads to formation of yellowish or light green coloured leaves and plant become stunted. The leaves and young fruits tend to drop prematurely. The kernels of cereals and the seed of other crops do not attain their normal size, and become shrivelled and light in weight.
Phosphorus
Phosphorus is the second fertilizer element and it is an essential constituent of every living cells and for the nutrition of plant and animal. It takes active part in all types of metabolism of plant. It is an essential constituent of majority of enzymes and also structural component of membrane system of cell, chloroplasts and the mitochondria. It is intimately associated with the life process.
Phosphorus stimulates root development and growth in the seedling stage and there by it helps to establish the seedlings quickly. It hastens leaf development and encourages greater growth of shoots and roots. It enhances the development of reproductive parts and thus bringing about early maturity of crops particularly the cereals. It increases the number of tillers in cereal crops and also strengthen the straw and thus helps to prevent the lodging. It stimulates the flowering, fruit setting and seed formation and the development of roots, particularly of root crops. Phosphorus has a special action on leguminous crops. It induces nodule formation and rhizobial activity.
Excess phosphorus leads to profuse root growth, particularly of the lateral and fibrous rootlets. It leads to some trace element deficiencies particularly iron and zinc.
Deficiency of phosphorus leads to restricted root and shoot growth, leaves may shed prematurely, flowering and fruiting may be delayed considerably. In case of potato tubers phosphorus deficiency leads to formation of rusty brown lessions.
Potassium
Potassium is the third fertilizer element. Potassium acts as a chemical traffic policeman, root booster, stalk strengthener, food former, sugar and starch transporter, protein builder, breathing regulator, water stretcher and as a disease retarder but it is not effective without its co-nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus.
Potassium is an essential element for the development of chlorophyll. It plays an important role in photosynthesis, i.e., converting carbon-dioxide and hydrogen into sugars, for translocation of sugars, and in starch formation. It improves the health and vigour of the plant, enabling it to withstand adverse climatic condition. It increases the crop resistance to certain diseases. Potash plays a key role in production of quality vegetables. Potassium is an enzyme activator and increases the plumpness and boldness of grains and seeds. It improves the water balance. Promotes metabolism and increases the production of carbohydrates.
Potassium deficiency causes stunting in growth with shortening of internodes and bushy in appearance, brings about chlorosis, i.e., yellowing of leaves and leaf scorch in case of fruit trees. It is also responsible for the 'dying back tips' of shoots. Its deficiency leads to reduction in photosynthesis, blackening of tubers in case of potato, tips or margin of lower leaves of legumes, maize, cotton, tobacco and small grains are either scorched or burnt.
Secondary nutrients
Secondary nutrients include calcium, magnesium and sulphur, which play an important role in plant growth and development. The details of these nutrients are given below.
Calcium
Calcium as calcium pectate is an important constituent of cell wall and required for cell division. It is a structural component of chromosomes. It includes stiffness to straw and there by tends to prevent lodging. It enhances the nodule formation in legumes, helps in translocation of sugars, neutralizes organic acids which may become poisonous to plants. It is an essential co-factor or an activator of number of enzymes. It improves the intake of other plant nutrients, specially nitrogen and trace elements by correcting soil pH. Excessive amounts of calcium can decrease the availability of many micronutrients.
Deficiency of calcium lead to 'Die back' at the tips and margins of young leaves. Normal growth of plants is arrested i.e., roots may become short, stubby and bushy, leaves become wrinkled and the young leaves of cereal crops remain folded. The acidity of cell sap increases abnormally and it hampers the physiological function of plant. As a result of which plant suffers and causes the death of plant at last.
Magnesium
Magnesium is an essential constituent of chlorophyll. Several photosynthetic enzymes present in chlorophyll requires magnesium as an activator. It is usually needed by plants for formation of oils and fats. It regulates the uptake of nitrogen and phosphorus from the soil. Magnesium may increase crop resistance to drought and disease.
Deficiency of magnesium leads to yellowing of the older leaves known as chlorosis. Acute deficiency of magnesium also causes premature defoliation. In case of maize the leaves develop interveinal white strips, in cotton they change to purplish red, veins remain dark green, in soybean they turn yellowish and in apple trees, brown patches (blotches) appear on the leaves.
sulphur
Sulphur has specified role in initiating synthesis of proteins. Sulphur is an important nutrient for oil seeds, crucifers, sugar and pulse crops. It is an essential constituent of many proteins, enzymes and certain volatile compounds such as mustard oil. It hastens root growth and stimulates seed formation. It is essential for the synthesis of certain aminoacids and oils. It can be called as master nutrient for oilseed production.
The deficiency of sulphur leads to slow growth with slender stalks, nodulation in legumes may be poor and nitrogen fixation is reduced. The young leaves turn yellow and the root and stems become abnormally long and develop woodiness. In case of fruit trees, the fruits become light green, thick skinned and less juicy. Sulphur deficient plant produces less protein and oil.
Micronutrients
Micronutrient elements are required by plants in very low concentration suggests that they all function as catalyst or atleast closely linked with some catalytic process in plants. Micronutrient elements include boron, copper, zinc, iron, manganese, molybdenum and chlorine.
Boron helps in cell development by its influence on polysaccharide formation. It regulates translocation of sugars across membranes and polyphenolase activity. Iron is a constituent of cytochrome, haem and non-haem enzymes. Perhaps the best known role of iron is its catalytic role in enzyme activity.
Copper, zinc and manganese are components of certain biological oxidation-reduction systems. Manganese performs some function in photosynthesis, acts as regulator to the intake and state of oxidation of certain elements.
Zinc is concerned with the formation of Sulphydryl compounds such as cystein in the regulation of oxidation-reduction potential within the cells. Molybdenum is a constituent of nitrate reductase and nitrogenase enzyme and is associated with nitrogen utilization and in nitrogen fixation. Chlorine stimulates the activity of some enzymes and influences carbohydrate metabolism.
Methods of cultivation
Season And Method Of Planting
Planting season varies with the area of cultivation and variety
Planting is done during May-June or July- August in different tracts.
In Kerala and other West Coast areas where rainfall is sufficiently early, the crop can be planted during April-May with the receipt of pre-monsoon showers.
In Andra Pradesh short duration varieties like Kasturi, planting is done during second fortnight of May, Medium duration varieties like Kesari planting is done during 1st fortnight of June.
Long duration varieties like Mydukur, planting is in 2nd fortnight of June to 2nd fortnight of July.
Spacing
Black heavy soils
45-60 cm X 22.5 cm
Red loamy soils
30 X 15 cm
Orissa
22.5 X 22.5
Over all the optimum spacing will be 45-60 cm between rows and 22.5 cm within the row.In case of planting in beds rhizomes are planted 25-35 cm apart in each direction.
Seed rate
Mother Rhizomes
2000-2500 kg/ha as a sole crop
Primary fingers
1500-2000 kg/ha as a sole crop
Fruit gardens
400-500 kg/ha as a inter crop
Seed material
It is necessary to store the seed rhizomes for 2-3 months from harvesting to planting.
This may be done by spreading them thinly under a cover of turmeric leaves or storing them by treating the rhizomes with 0.3 percent Dithane M-45 and 0.5 percent Malathion for 30 minutes before storing heaps under a layer of straw and soil.
Well-developed, healthy and disease free rhizomes are selected.
Whole or split mother rhizomes weighing 35 to 44 g are used for planting.
Systems Of Cultivation
Two system of cultivation are followed in different areas
Bed system (Raised or flat)
Ridge and furrow
The system of cultivation is dependent upon the intensity of rains and type of soil.
Bed system gives higher yields of 54-80%.
Bed system (Raised or flat)
Beds of 1m width and of conveinent length are prepared with a spacing of 0-50 cm between beds. In heavy rainfall areas and for heavy soils the beds are raised (15 cm)
Ridge and furrow method
Where natural drainage does not exist ridges of 23 cm height and furrows at a spacing of 45-60 cm are prepared.
In Andhra Pradesh both the methods are adopted . In Duggirala and surrounding areas ridge and furrow method is followed.
In Cuddapah zone flat bed system is followed on red loams, while in Godavari zone raised beds are laid out for planting rhizomes.
Method of Planting
Planting is done by dibbling rhizome in furrows behind the country plough.
The seeds are then covered with loose soil from the ridge.
In Andhra Pradesh the broad ridge method of planting is superior and more profitable than the ridge and furrow method, as the elevated beds provide better drainage.
The crop can be planted on flat beds or on ridges, on large scale potato planter can be used for turmeric planting.
Emergence of seedlings takes place 2-4 weeks after sowing.
Rotation and Mixed Cropping
Turmeric can be grown as an intercrop in coconut plantations.
In wetlands, it is grown in rotation with Rice, Sugarcane, Banana or Vegetables.
In garden lands, it is often in rotation with rainfed rice mixed with Pigionpea, Maize, yam or minor millets.
Turmeric can be rotated with crops such as Finger millet, Rice and Sugarcane.
It is rarely cultivated in pure stand, but is usually grown mixed with crops like Castor, Maize, Finger millet, Onions, Brinjal and Tomato.
Turmeric+Onion combination recorded an average yield of 16 to 20 tonnes of turmeric and 2,945 kilograms of onion, fetching the highest net income against net income obtained from monocropping of Turmeric.
This highly profitable finding should be seriously taken note of and implemented by progressive turmeric growers.
Weeding
Weeds are the main problem with turmeric (Curcuma longa L.) cultivation where herbicides are not allowed. This is because herbicides cause water contamination, air pollution, soil microorganism hazards, health hazards, and food risks. Considering turmeric's medicinal value and the environmental problems caused by herbicides, various agronomic practises have been evaluated for non-chemical weed control in turmeric. One additional weeding is required before turmeric emergence and weed infestation is much higher when turmeric is planted in February and March, as compared to April, May or June planting. A similarly higher yield of turmeric is achieved when it is planted in February, March, and April, compared to late plantings. Weed emergence and interference are not affected by planting depth, seed size, planting pattern, planting space, ridge spacing, and the row number of turmeric until 60days after planting. This is because turmeric cannot develop a canopy structure until then. Thereafter, weed infestation reduces similarly and significantly when turmeric is planted at depths of 8, 12, and 16cm, compared to shallower depths. The yield of turmeric at these depths is statistically the same, but the yield for the 16cm depth is difficult to harvest and it tends to decrease. Turmeric grown from seed rhizomes (daughter rhizomes) weighing 30–40g reduces weed infestation significantly and obtains a significantly higher yield compared to smaller seeds. The mother rhizome also can suppress weed infestation and increase the yield markedly. Around 9% weed control and 11% higher yield are achieved by planting turmeric in a triangular pattern compared to a quadrate pattern. The lowest weed infestation is found in turmeric grown in a 20 or 30cm triangular pattern and the highest yield is obtained with the 30cm triangular pattern. Turmeric gown on two-row ridges spaced 75cm apart shows excellent weed control efficiency and obtains the highest yield. This review concludes that turmeric seed rhizomes of 30–40g and/or the mother rhizome could be planted in a 30cm triangular pattern at the depth of 8–12cm on two-row ridges spaced 75–100cm apart during March to April in order to reduce weed interference and obtain a higher yield. Mulching also suppresses weed growth and improves the yield. The above agronomic practises could not control weeds completely; biological weed management practises could be integrated in turmeric fields using rabbits, goats, sheep, ducks, cover crops or intercrops.
Disease and pests
Good plant protection equipment.
Finally mostly farm based renewable resources that can enhance the recycling phenomenon of ecosystem should'PEST' is an organism that causes damage resulting in economic loss to a plant or animal. It can also be said that pest is a living organism that thrives at the expense of other living organism.
The expression of "Pest" is used very broadly to insects, other invertebrates like nematodes, mites, snails and slugs, etc., and vertebrates like rats, birds, jackals, etc., that cause damage to crops, stored products and animals.
Disease producing pathogens of plants and weeds are also referred as crop pests.
Integrated Pest Management Strategy
While developing IPM strategy one has to select different components that are readily available, economical and applicable at field level.
To cater the needs for location specific cropping systems the suitable technologies should be developed by Research workers from time to time.
The research findings that are practically implementable should be popularized by the Extension workers through education to farming community. Farmers have to be trained in scouting, diagnosis of pest infestation and arriving ETLs for need based chemical application in time.
Farmers should also be trained in selection of suitable pesticide, use of proper lethal dose and proper coverage of foliage to avoid risks of resistance, resurgence and residues. Farmers training is a continuous process and is an important integrated part for successful implementation of IPM.
An healthy, meaningful co-operation is very much needed from corporate pesticide industry to make IPM successful at farmers level. The pesticide industry should not wield enormous financial power and maintain market dominance against ecological and environmental safety.
When to use Crop Protection Chemicals
When adult activity is in increasing trend resulting in unacceptable pest load on crop as indicated by pheromone, light and sticky traps.
When field scouts fixed plot survey indicate a particular dominating stage of pest in the field.
When the bio-agents existing in the area did not attain a level, that can influence the pest population.
When insecticide resistance due to usage of insecticides does not surface practically.
When residues of insecticides do not become problematic.
When the role of bio-agents and other environmental resistance factors are less perceptible.
How can a Crop be monitored
A field crop is monitored to determine a pests economic status or to determine whether a natural enemy is at a level capable of suppressing a pest's population density. So identification of pests and beneficial insects is of prime importance before any control operation is executed.
Monitoring tools like pheromone, light and sticky traps can be advantageously used. Field scouting adopting fixed plot survey or roving survey should be taken from time to time to monitor the crop in determining whether the pest population attained ETLs.
Which Products Form Part of The Ipm Strategy
Different monitoring tools like pheromone traps, light traps, coloured sticky traps.
Preserved specimens of pests, natural enemies, infested plant portions as identification tools.
Bird perches.
Seed dressing chemicals and seed dressing machines.
Seeds of Resistant varieties.
Ecofriendly insecticides like Neem products and bio-fungicides like Trichoderma sp.
Natural enemies like Trichogramma egg cards, and microbial preparations of NPV & Bt.
Harvesting and yield
Depending upon the variety, the crop becomes ready for harvest in 7-9 months after planting.
Usually harvesting extends from January to March-April. Early varieties mature in 7-8 months and medium varieties in 8-9 months.
The crop is ready for harvesting when the leaves turn yellow and start drying up.
At the time of maturity, leaves are cut close to the ground, the land is ploughed and rhizomes are gathered by hand-picking or the clumps are carefully lifted with a spade.
The picked rhizomes are collected and cleaned. The mother and finger rhizomes are separated before curing.
The yield per hectare comes to 20,000 to 22,000 kilograms of green turmeric. Some of the high-yielding selections developed have recorded a yield of 35,000 of green turmeric per hectare.
Quality of cured turmeric is assessed on
The pigment (curcumin) content
The organoleptic character
The general appearance
Size and physical form of rhizome
Hence proper care is exercised while taking up processing the material.
Processing
It involves three-steps
Curing
Polishing
Colouring.
Curing
Fingers are separated from mother rhizomes and are usually kept as seed material.
The fresh turmeric is cured for obtaining dry turmeric before marketing.
Curing involves boiling of fresh rhizomes in water and drying in the sun.
The objective of boiling is to destroy the viability of the fresh rhizomes and to obviate the raw odour, to reduce the drying time, to gelatinize the starch for hardening the rhizomes and give a more uniform coloured product and an even distribution of colour in the rhizome.
In the traditional methods, the cleaned rhizomes are boiled in copper or galvanized iron or earthen vessels, with water just enough to soak them.
In regions of sugarcane where turmeric is cultivated the shallow pans used for gur boiling can be used for turmeric boiling also. If water is acidic, sodium bicarbonate is added to make it slightly alkaline.
In certain places, cowdung slurry is used as boiling medium. From hygienic point of view, such rhizomes fetch poor market value.
Boiling process should be done over a slow fire until they softened.
Boiling is stopped when froth comes out and white fumes appear giving out a typical odour when properly cooked, the rhizomes would be soft and yield when pressed between fingers.
The boiling lasts for 45 to 60 minutes when the rhizomes are soft. Over cooking spoils the colour of final product while under cooking renders the dried product brittle.
In the improved scientific methods of curing the cleaned fingers (approximately 50 kg) are taken in a perforated trough of size 0.9x0.55x0.4m, made of GI or MS sheet with extended parallel handle.
The perforated trough containing the fingers are then immersed in the pan. The alkaline solution (0.1% sodium carbonate or sodium bicarbonate) is poured into the trough so as to immerse the turmeric fingers.
The whole mass is boiled till the finger become soft. The cooked fingers are taken out of the pan by lifting the trough and draining the solution into the pan.
Alkalinity of the boiling water helps in imparting orange yellow tinge to the core of turmeric.
The drained solution in the pan can also be used for boiling another lot of turmeric along with the fresh solution prepared for the purpose.
The cooking of turmeric is to be done within two or three days after harvesting. The mother rhizomes and the fingers are generally cured separately.
The cooked fingers are dried in the sun by spreading 5 to 7 cm thick layers on bamboo mat or drying floor. A thinner layer is not desirable, as the colour of the dried product may be adversely affected.
During night time, the materials should be heaped or covered. It may take 10 to 15 days for the rhizomes to become completely dry.
The yield of the dry product varies from 20 to 30 percent depending upon the variety and the location where the crop is grown.
Polishing
· Dried turmeric has poor appearance and a rough dull outer surface with scales and root lets. The appearance is improved by smoothening and polishing outer surface by manual or mechanical rubbing.
Manual polishing
Consists of rubbing the dried turmeric fingers on a hard surface or trampling them under feet, wrapped in gunny bags.
Mechanical rubbing
The improved method is by using hand operated barrel or drum mounted on a central axis, the sides of which are made of expanded metal mesh.
When the drum filled with turmeric is rotated at 30 rpm, polishing is effected by abrasion of the surface against the mesh as well as by mutual rubbing against each other as they roll inside the drum.
The turmeric is also polished in power-operated drums. The yield of polished turmeric from the raw materials varies from 15 to 25 percent.
Colouring
It is done to give a good appearance and better finish to the product.
This is done to half polished rhizomes in two ways, known as dry and wet colouring. Turmeric powder is added to the polishing drum in the last 10 minutes in dry process.
In wet process, Turmeric powder is suspends in water and mixed by sprinkling inside the polishing basket.
For giving a brighter colour, the boiled, dried and half-polished fingers are taken in baskets which are shaken continuously when an emulsion is poured in.
When the fingers are uniformly coated with the emulsion they may be dried in the sun.
The composition of the emulsion required for coating 100 kg of half boiled turmeric is
Alum 0.04 kg,
Turmeric powder 2 kg
Castor seed oil 0.14 kg
Sodium bisulfate 30 g
Concentrated hydrochloric acid 30ml.
Improved method of curing
The Central Food Technological Research Institute, Mysore, has developed a simpler, hygienic and efficient technique of curing and colouring turmeric.
In this rhizomes are boiled in lime-water or sodium carbonate. A water solution containing 20 g sodium bisulphite and 20 g of hydrochloric acid per 45.3 kg of tubers is recommended to given them the desired yellow tint.
Packing and storage
Harvesting of crop is seasonal, but consumption of food grain is continuous. The market value of the produce is generally low at harvesting time. So the grower need storage facility to hold a portion of produce to meet the feed and seed requirements in addition of selling surplus produce when the marketing price is favourable.
Traders and Co-operatives at market centres need storage structures to hold grains when the transport facility is inadequate.
The government also needs storage structures to maintain buffer reserves to offset the effects produced by the vagaries of nature. Hence, there is necessity to store the produce for different periods primarily for commercial reasons. The growers, processors, transporters and warehouse men have to develop storage facilities for proper storage of food grains, oilseeds, commercial crops like Chillies, vegetables and fruits etc., and seeds intended for sowing in the following seasons.
An ideal storage facility should satisfy the following requirements
It should provide maximum possible protection from ground moisture, rains, insect pests, moulds, rodents, birds, fire, etc.,
It should provide the necessary facility for inspection, disinfection, loading, unloading, cleaning and reconditioning.
It should protect grain from excessive moisture and temperature favourable to both insect and mould development.
It should be economical and suitable for a particular situation.
Types of Storage
Holding grain in bulk in underground is an age old method of rural storage. Wheat, Paddy, Sorghum, Fingermillet, etc., can be stored underground for a period of 2 years. These structures are simple underground dig-outs upto a depth of 5 m varying in sizes to hold from a small quantity upto 50 tonnes.
The pits are lined with brick or concrete so that moisture from walls and bottom does not damage the grain. At the time of filling a layer of straw is placed on all sides.
After the pit is filled, straw is spread over the grain and then topped with a layer of soil. Insect infestation is less in the under ground storage and it is cheaper over above ground storage structures.
This underground structure is not suitable for high rainfall and high water-table areas. Further the grain stored underground have poor appearance and musty smell.
Several types of above ground storage structure mentioned below are also in use in our country.
Mud bins
The mud bins are made of unburnt clay mixed with straw with 1 to 3 inch thick wall and are oval, rectangular or circular. A small hole is provided at the base for taking out the grain and a larger hole is provided at the top for filling it with grain. Both the inlet and outlet holes are plugged while grain is stored.
Straw bins
For storing paddy in humid zones dried plants are used for making temporary structures, which after being filled with grain are further reinforced from outside by winding paddy straw ropes around the whole structure. Each structure holds 2 to 6 quintals of grain.
Bukhari bins
This is a cylindrical structure and is made of mud and split bamboo's. The bin is always placed on a wooden or a massonary plat form to prevent its contact with the ground. The capacity may vary from 3 to 10 tonnes.
Kothar type bins
These bins are very much similar to a timber box placed on a raised plat form, which is generally supported on pillars. Both the floor and walls are made of wooden planks, where the tiled or thatched roof is placed over it as a protection against sun and rains. The capacity may vary from 9 to 35 tonnes.
Metal bins
Bins made of steel, alluminium R.C.C are used for storage of grains outside the house. These bins are fire and moisture proof. The bins have long durability and produced on commercial scale. The capacity ranges from 1 to 10 tonnes. Silos are huge bins made with either steel, alluminium or concrete. Usually steel and alluminium bins are circular in shape. The capacity of silo ranges from 500 to 4000 tonnes. A silo has facilities for loading and unloading grains.
The storage structures in rural areas are not ideal from scientific-storage point of view, as substantial losses occur during storage of grain from insect pests, moulds, rodents, etc. ; keeping the requirements of the farmers in view the Indian grain storage institute (IGSI), Hapur with its branch at Ludhiana and Hyderabad have developed several metal bins of different capacities for scientific storage of grain in rural areas.
Methods of Storage
The grains are stored at three different levels, viz., at the producer's level (rural storage) trader's level and urban organizational storage. The urban organization uses modern facilities and structures like silos, warehouses and also undertaken periodical inspection, processing and treatment of grains for ensuring their quality during storage.
Generally, there are two ways of storing grains i.e.
Storage in bags and Loose or bulk storage.
In the tropical regions, the grain is stored in bags. Storage in bags requires considerable labour, but the minimum investment is enough on permanent structures and equipment. The storage in bags has the advantage of being short-term storage. Bag storage can be done under a roof of Galvanized Iron sheets, a plastic covering where grain is intended for very early onward movement. Usually no control measures against insects is needed for short-term storage. If bag storage produce is intended for long time, the control measures have to be taken against insect pests.
The bulk storage has an advantage of greater storage capacity per unit volume of space. Less labour is involved in loading and unloading and there is no need of investment in purchasing gunny bags. In bulk storage the insect infestation is also lower over bag storage. The grain can be kept for several years in bulk storage.
Properties
The active curcuminoid ingredients in turmeric can reduce inflammation in patients with rheumatoid arthritis, uveitis, and other autoimmune disorders.
Turmeric (Curcuma longa), a flowering plant in the ginger family, has been long used in Ayurvedic and Chinese medicine as an anti-inflammatory agent, a remedy for digestive disorders and liver problems, and as an effective treatment for skin diseases and wound healing. Today, in a large number of scientific studies, turmeric is being investigated in the United States for these medicinal properties, particularly its ability to reduce inflammation in patients with inflammatory rheumatic disease.
In addition, in one study, turmeric was also found to improve symptoms in the autoimmune eye disorder uveitis. In this study turmeric was shown to be as effective as corticosteroids but free of the side effects commonly associated with steroids.
Turmeric is native to Asia, where it grows as a perennial flowering plant. The aboveground and underground roots are used to produce turmeric powder for medicinal and food uses. With its distinct golden hue, turmeric is used as a food color and as a spice or flavor enhancer. Of note, turmeric is one of the principle ingredients in curry powder. The active ingredient in turmeric is a substance known as curcumin, which belongs to the family of curcuminoid compounds.
Although among Western researchers curcumin has only recently been studied in humans, it has been widely studied in animals for its protective effect on the liver, anti-tumor action, anti-inflammatory properties and its ability to fight infections. In contrast, in Ayurvedic medicine turmeric has been studied and used as a medicinal agent for thousands of years. A teaspoon of turmeric poweder in a cup of warm milk used three times daily has long been considered an effective Ayurvedic treatment for colds and influenza.
Because of its ability to induce bile flow, curcumin helps break down fats and increases the production of stomach acids. For this reason, turmeric should not be used in people diagnosed with gallstones or obstruction of the bile passages unless prescribed by a qualified practitioner.
Turmeric and Arthritis
A research study funded by the NIH's National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine (NCCAM) has explored the use of turmeric for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, an autoimmune condition affecting two million Americans. Rheumatoid arthritis, which is the most common of the autoimmune rheumatologic disorders, is characterized by joint swelling, pain, stiffness and a progressive loss of joint function.
In this study, conducted at the NCCAM-funded Center for Phytomedicine Research at the University of Arizona, researchers created symptoms of rheumatoid arthritis in laboratory rats that mimicked those seen in humans. Some of the rats were treated before developing inflammation and some were treated after inflammation developed with different preparations and dosages of turmeric extracts.
Results suggest that the most improvement, measured in terms of joint swelling, occurred in the rats given an extract containing only curcuminoids, the major components of turmeric, as opposed to more complex extracts containing curcuminoids plus other turmeric compounds (similar to commercially available supplements). The study's lead researcher, Dr. Janet Funk, noted that the curcuminoids-only formula also appeared safer and more effective at lower doses. Dr. Funk also noted greater effectiveness in the rats that were treated before signs of inflammation developed.
Dosage and Precautions
The usual recommended dose is 400-600 mg daily of turmeric tablets or capsules taken three times daily or as directed on the product label. Dr. Andrew Weil recommends products labeled as standard curcuminoids, cautioning that it can take up to two months before results are observed.
Turmeric should not be used in pregnancy and in patients with gallstones or bile duct obstructions unless it is under the advise of their physicians. The Center for Integrative Medicine at the University of Maryland cautions that while herbs are effective in strengthening the body and treating disease, they contain active substances that can trigger side effects and interact with other herbs, supplements, or medications. For this reason, they recommend that herbs should be taken with care, under the supervision of a practitioner knowledgeable in the field of botanical medicine. And while turmeric and curcumin are considered safe at recommended doses, they may produce stomach upset, and, used in very high doses, ulcers.
Standards and specifications
Turmeric Finger (Non Polished) Specification
Product details Turmeric Finger (Non Polished)
Grade Good
Flexibility Hard to touch
Broken pieces, (fingers<15mm)>
Foreign matter <>
Defectives <>
Percentage of bulbs by weight. <>
Starch content, max, w/w 60 %
Curcumin content 4 - 5 %
Turmeric Finger (Polished) Specification
Product details Turmeric Finger (Polished)
Grade Good
Flexibility Hard to touch
Broken pieces, (fingers<15mm)>
Foreign matter <>
Defectives <>
Percentage of bulbs by weight, max. <>
Starch content, max, w/w 60 %
Curcumin content 4 - 5 %
Turmeric Powder Specification
Product Details
Product name Turmeric Powder
Genus/species Curcuma longa
Parts used Rhizomes, Tubers
Grade Standard
Color and appearance Orange
Organoleptic characters Characteristic taste & aroma
Physio-Chemical Analysis
Extraneous matter (% w/w) <>
Moisture (% w/w) max 5
Total ash (% w/w) max 5
Acid insoluble ash (% w/w) max 1.5
Starch content, (% w/w) max 60
Chromate test Negative
Curcumin content, (% w/w) 4 - 5
Heavy Metals
Lead, max (ppm) 2.5
Arsenic, max (ppm) 1
Microbial Profile
Total Plate Count, cfu/gm <>
Yeast & Mould, cfu/gm <>
Salmonella Absent
E. Coli Absent
Production and trade
The main producing countries of turmeric include India, Pakistan and Bangladesh. India is the biggest producer, supplying some 20,000 t each year. It enters the international market in the form of dried whole rhizomes, or as ground rhizomes. The major importers of this spice are Iran, Sri Lanka, Middle Eastern and North African countries.
It is cultivated commercially as an annual crop, by planting small rhizomes or pieces of rhizome either on flat soil or in furrows between ridges. The growing plants require heavy manuring to get the best yield possible.
Turmeric is ready for harvesting 7 to 10 months after planting, when the lower leaves turn yellow. Harvesting is done by digging the rhizomes up. Leafy tops are then cut off and the roots and adhering earth is removed. Rhizomes are then washed. Some of these are retained for replanting as a future crop. The remainder are processed into turmeric.
To develop the yellow colour and characteristic aroma, cleaned rhizomes are cooked in boiling water for one hour under slightly alkaline conditions. The cooked rhizomes are then dried either artificially or in the sun for 6 to 8 days. Dried rhizomes are polished to smooth their exterior and also to improve the colour. They are then sold in this form or ground into a powder.
Adulteration and substitutes
In India, the deliberate contamination and bulking out of turmeric is a serious problem in local markets. On an international scale, the problems may not be so serious, but closely related species are frequently substituted for true turmeric. Fortunately, chemical analysis can to some extent establish how pure a product is.
Ground turmeric is the most vulnerable product, particularly in local markets. Here, it is not uncommon to find turmeric powder adulterated with lead chromate, yellow earth, sand or even cheap talc.
In the international market, concern over possible adulteration is associated mainly with the mixing of related Curcuma species containing similar pigments. Species that have been used as a substitute include C. xanthorrhiza, C. aromatica and C. zedoaria.
In Asian producing countries, these three species are used as a source of starch, dyes and in folk medicine as a substitute for true turmeric. It is often difficult to identify these species by microscopic examination of the powder. But, adulteration of true turmeric by C. aromatica and C. zedoaria can be detected by chemical methods.
Uses
Turmeric powder is used extensively in Indian cuisine.
Commercially packaged turmeric powder
In non-Indian recipes, turmeric is sometimes used as a coloring agent. It has found application in canned ,beverages baked products, dairy products, , yogurt,ice cream yellow cakes, orange juice, biscuits, popcorn color, sweets, cake icings, cereals, sauces, gelatins, etc. It is a significant ingredient in most commercial curry powders.
Turmeric is used to protect food products from sunlight. The oleoresin is used for oil-containing products. The curcumin/polysorbate solution or curcumin powder dissolved in alcohol is used for water containing products. Over-coloring, such as in pickles, relishes and mustard, is sometimes used to compensate for fading.
In combination with turmeric has been used to color cheeses, yogurt, dry mixes, salad dressings, winter butter and margarine. Turmeric is also used to give a yellow color to some prepared mustards, canned chicken broths and other foods (often as a much cheaper replacement for saffron).
Turmeric is widely used as a spice in South Asian and Middle Eastern cooking. Momos (Nepali meat dumplings), a traditional dish in South Asia, are spiced with turmeric.
Medicinal uses
Turmeric plant
In Ayurvedic medicine, turmeric is thought to have many medicinal properties and many in India use it as a readily available antiseptic for cuts, burns and bruises. Practitioners of Ayurvedic medicine say it has fluoride which is thought to be essential for teeth. It is also used as an antibacterial agent.
It is taken in some Asian countries as a dietary supplement, which allegedly helps with stomach problems and other ailments. It is popular as a tea in Okinawa, Japan. It is currently being investigated for possible benefits in Alzheimer's disease, cancer and liver disorders.
Turmeric rhizome
It is only in recent years that Western scientists have increasingly recognised the medicinal properties of turmeric. According to a 2005 article in the Wall Street Journal titled, "Common Indian Spice Stirs Hope," research activity into curcumin, the active ingredient in turmeric, is exploding. Two hundred and fifty-six curcumin papers were published in the past year according to a search of the U.S. National Library of Medicine. Supplement sales have increased 35% from 2004, and the U.S. National Institutes of Health has four clinical trials underway to study curcumin treatment for pancreatic cancer, multiple myeloma, Alzheimer's, and colorectal cancer.2004 UCLA-Veterans Affairs study involving genetically altered mice suggests that curcumin, the active ingredient in turmeric, might inhibit the accumulation of destructive beta amyloids in the brains of Alzheimer's disease patients and also break up existing plaques. "Curcumin has been used for thousands of years as a safe anti-inflammatory in a variety of ailments as part of ," Gregory Cole, Professor of medicine and David Geffen School of Medicine at the at UCLA said.
Another 2004 study conducted at Yale University involved oral administration of curcumin to mice homozygous for the most common allele implicated in cystic fibrosis. Treatment with curcumin restored physiologically-relevant levels of protein function.
Anti-tumoral effects against melanoma cells have been demonstrated.
A recent study involving mice has shown that turmeric slows the spread of breast cancer into lungs and other body parts. Turmeric also enhances the effect of taxol in reducing metastasis of breast cancer.
Curcumin is thought to be a powerful antinociceptive agent (pain reliever). In the November 2006 issue of Arthritis & Rheumatism, a study was published that showed the effectiveness of turmeric in the reduction of joint inflammation, and recommended clinical trials as a possible treatment for the alleviation of arthritis symptoms.It is thought to work as a natural inhibitor of the cox-2 enzyme, and has been shown effective in animal models for neuropathic pain secondary to diabetes, among others.
Presenting their findings at the Endocrine Society’s annual meeting in San Francisco in June 2008, researchers discovered that turmeric-treated mice were less susceptible to developing type 2 diabetes, based on their blood glucose levels, and glucose and insulin tolerance tests. They also discovered that turmeric-fed obese mice showed significantly reduced inflammation in fat tissue and liver compared to controls. They speculate that curcumin in the turmeric lessens insulin resistance and prevents type 2 diabetes in these mouse models by dampening the inflammatory response provoked by obesity.
Cosmetics
Turmeric is currently used in the formulation of some sunscreens. Turmeric paste is used by some Indian women to keep them free of superfluous hair. Turmeric paste is applied to bride and groom before marriage in some places of India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan, where it is believed turmeric gives glow to skin and keeps some harmful bacteria away from the body.
The government of Thailand is funding a project to extract and isolate tetrahydrocurcuminoids (THC) from turmeric. THCs (not to be confused with tetrahydrocannabinol, also known as THC) are colorless compounds that might have antioxidant and skin-lightening properties and might be used to treat skin inflammations, making these compounds useful in cosmetics formulations.
Dye
Turmeric makes a poor fabric dye as it is not very lightfast (the degree to which a dye resists fading due to light exposure). However, turmeric is commonly used in Indian clothing, such as a sari.
Gardening
Turmeric can also be used to deter ants. The exact reasons why turmeric repels ants is unknown, but anecdotal evidence suggests it works.
Reference:
Turmeric, Center for Integrative Medicine, University of Maryland Medical Center, http://www.umm.edu/altmed/ConsHerbs/Turmericch.html
Dr. Andrew Weil Question and Answer Library, http://www.drweil.com/drw/u/QA/QA142972/
www.herbs2000.com
www.ikisan.com.com
www.ingentaconnect.com
www.organic.co.in
www.plantculture.org
www.wikipedia.com
Read more...
Family: Zingiberaceae
Genus: Curcuma
Most common species: Curcuma longa
Number of Curcuma Species: 70
Part used: Rhizome (Root)
Botanical name: Curcuma domestica syn C.longa
Common name: Turmeric (Besar)
Habitat
Curcuma longa, a perennial herb, is a member of the Zingiberaceae (ginger) family. The plant grows to a height of three to five feet, and is cultivated extensively in Asia, India, China, and other countries with a tropical climate. Indigenous to south Asian countries, especially India, turmeric is now commercially grown across southern and eastern Asian nations. Unlike many other herbs, turmeric is grown from root grafts and requires a soil with excellent drainage and moist conditions. The bulb of the herb is collected during the winter.
History
The use of turmeric as a coloring agent for food and fabric dates as far back as 600 B.C. Marco Polo, in 1280, mentioned turmeric in notes of his travels in China: "There is also a vegetable that has all the properties of true saffron, as well as the smell and the color, and yet it is not really saffron." In medieval Europe, turmeric was known as "Indian saffron." Since then, turmeric has been used as an inexpensive substitute for saffron.
According to Michael Moriarty, “The ancient Hawaiians used this herb for many things, including the prevention and treatment of sinus infections (it is very astringent and appears to pull mucus out), ear infections (swimmers ear) and gastrointestinal ulcers.”
Turmeric is eaten as a food both raw and cooked throughout Asia.While turmeric root looks much like ginger root, it is less fibrous and is more chewable, crunchy, and succulent.The fresh root (not the powder) has a somewhat sweet and nutty favor mixed with its bitter flavor.As a result, it is not unpleasant to eat and not difficult to chew.It is sometimes chewed plain or chopped up and put in salads raw.Traditional use includes mashing/grinding it in a mortar to make a paste to mix with other spices for flavoring in curries.In modern times, the most common use is of the dried root powder as the base of most curries in India and other nearby countries.(personal observation)
The old herbals of Europe make little if any mention of turmeric.Marco Polo refers to turmeric as Indian saffron used for dying cloth.Michael Castleman writing in 1991 says: “The ancient Greeks were well aware of turmeric, but unlike its close botanical relative, ginger, it never caught on in the West as either a culinary or medicinal herb.It was, however, used to make orange-yellow dyes.In the 1870’s, chemists discovered turmeric’s orange-yellow root powder turned reddish brown when exposed to alkaline chemicals This discovery led to the development of turmeric paper … to test for alkalinity.”
European and American herbalists up until the late 20th century had little interest in turmeric. However, even as Maude Grieve was writing, the roots of turmeric’s emergence as a prominent healing herb were starting to grow.Daniel B. Mowrey tells the story: “Serious research on turmeric began in Germany, in the early 1920’s. Sesquisterpenes in the essential oil of turmeric were isolated in 1926 and to them was ascribed the therapeutic activity.Later, a team of scientists compared the effects of whole extract, the essential oil, and the water-soluble extract. … In 1936, … curcumin was compared to whole extract and several isolated constituents. … The results of the experiment show that turmeric acts in the following ways:
Turmeric stimulates the flow of bile; several constituents have this property.
The increased flow of bile depend in part on the contraction of the gallbladder and in part on the increase in bile secretion;
The stimulation of bile depends mostly on the presence of essential oil;
The flavonoids cause the contraction of the gallbladder and thereby increase the effective emptying of this organ.”
In the early years of the 20th century, most allopathic medicines were based on herbs. Even as late as the 1940s, about half of all prescriptions still contained herbal ingredients. Turmeric has been mentioned in early writings of the world in many languages. The Unani practitioners, such as Hakeem Hashmi, have used it all over the world, as well as other systems of medicines. It was prescribed by Unani physicians as a drug to strengthen the stomach, and promoted as a tonic and blood purifier.
The genus name Curcuma is from an Arabic word "kurkum," meaning "saffron," in reference to the color of turmeric. The actual word "turmeric" is from Medieval Latin, terra merita, meaning "deserving earth."
Botany
General description
Curcuma longa, a perennial herb, is a member of the Zingiberaceae (ginger) family. The plant grows to a height of three to five feet, and is cultivated extensively in Asia, India, China, and other countries with a tropical climate. It has oblong, pointed leaves and bears funnel-shaped yellow flowers. (1) The rhizome is the portion of the plant used medicinally; it is usually boiled, cleaned, and dried, yielding a yellow powder. Dried Curcuma longa is the source of the spice turmeric, the ingredient that gives curry powder its characteristic yellow color. Turmeric is used extensively in foods for both its flavor and color. Turmeric has a long tradition of use in the Chinese and Ayurvedic systems of medicine, particularly as an anti-inflammatory agent, and for the treatment of flatulence, jaundice, menstrual difficulties, hematuria, hemorrhage, and colic. Turmeric can also be applied topically in poultices to relieve pain and inflammation. (2) Current research has focused on turmeric's antioxidant, hepatoprotective, anti-inflammatory, anticarcinogenic, and antimicrobial properties, in addition to its use in cardiovascular disease and gastrointestinal disorders.
Histology
Leaf
Fresh leaves on steam distillation produced an oil in 0.15% yield. The leaf oil of C. longa from Vietnam has been reported to contain α-phellandrene (24.5%), 1,8-cineole (15.9%),p-cymene (13.2%) and β-pinene (8.9%) as the major components, while the oil from Bhutan had a similar chemical composition except that terpinolene (11.6%) was one of the major constituents (1,2). Another report on the oil from the plains of northern India showed the presence of terpinolene (26.4%), 1,8-cineole (9.5%), α-phellandrene (8.0%) and terpinen-4-ol (7.4%) as the major constituents (3).
Flower
Rhizome
The rhizome is the portion of the plant used medicinally; it is usually boiled, cleaned, and dried, yielding a yellow powder. Dried Curcuma longa is the source of the spice turmeric,the ingredient that gives curry powder its characteristic yellow color.
Seed
Seed Biology
The ovule after fertilization develops into the seed with its coats completely fused together with the developing ovary wall or pericarp. The rice grain has the following structures.
The Pericarp or Fruit Coat
The pericarp is made up of distinct layers of quadrangular cells which forms the epicarp. These cells have slight thickening and are followed by cells which are much compressed and form the mesocarp consisting of two to three layers.
The endocarp is single layer of tube cells. The colour in the rice grain is found in the pericarp layer in the mature stage.
The Seed Coats
Due to the pressure brought out by the developing seed on the pericarp, the testa and tegmen become much pressed down and out of shape. A few layers of such cells below the pericarp can be diagnosed as the integuments of seed coats.
Aleurone Layer
A prominent layer of rectangular cells which contain protein lies next to the seed cents. This layer is known as the aleurone layer. This layer in rice is not coloured unlike in the case of maize.
It has been observed that in coloured varieties of rice, the aleurone layer is thicker than in the white rice varieties. The coarse rice generally have a larger aleurone layer than the finer rice. It has also been found that in poor soils, the aleurone layer is thin and improves in thickness with the fertility of the soil and manure.
The Endosperm
The entire mass of tissue below the aleurone layer is made up of cells which contain plenty of starch grains and these form the endosperm.
The Embryo
The scutellum has an upper free part which has a flesh projection known as ventral scale. Below this upper ventral scale and almost at the middle of the free part there is another out growth which can be called as the 'inner ventral scale' and this inner ventral scale is peculiar to rice embryos only.
On the surface of the embryo this out growth along with the epiblast forms a continuous covering around the plumule. The structure between the scutellum and the plumule is the mesocotyl.
Agronomy
Natural requirement
Plants require 16 essential elements for their normal growth and development.
The essential elements exist as structural components of a cell, maintain cellular organizations, function in energy transformations and in enzyme reaction.
Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen are three naturally occurring nutrients and form about 94 per cent of the dry weight of plants. These are the major components of carbohydrates, proteins and fats. Besides their structural role, they provide energy required for the growth and development of plants by oxidative breakdown of carbohydrates, proteins and fats during cellular respiration.
Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium are three major or primary nutrients which are to be made available in larger quantities.
Nitrogen is an essential constituent of metabolically active compounds such as aminoacids, proteins, enzymes and some non-proteinous compounds. When nitrogen is a limiting factor, the rate and extent of protein synthesis are depressed and as a result plant growth is affected. The plant gets stunted and develops chlorosis.
Phosphorus is a structural component of all membranes, chloroplasts and mitochondria and a constituent of sugar phosphates, viz., ADP, ATP, nucleic acid, Phospholipids and phosphatides. Phosphorus plays an important role in energy transformations and metabolic processes in plants. It stimulates root growth.
Potassium plays an important role in the maintenance of cellular organisations by regulating permeability of cell membranes and keeping the protoplasm in a proper degree of hydration. It activates the enzymes in protein and carbohydrate metabolism and translocation of carbohydrates and imparts resistance to plants against fungal and bacterial disease.
Calcium, magnesium and sulphur are secondary nutrients which are required in relatively smaller but in appreciable quantities. Calcium, a constituent of the cell wall, an activator of different plant enzymes and is essential for the stability of cell membranes.
Sulphur is required to synthesize the sulphur containing amino acids and proteins, activity of proteolytic enzymes and increases oil content in oil bearing plants.
Iron, zinc, manganese, copper, boron, molybdenum and chlorine are required by plants in small quantities for their growth and development. Hence they are known as micronutrients or trace elements. The very fact that the micronutrient elements are required by plants in very low concentration suggests that they all function as catalysts or at least closely linked with some catalytic processes in plants. Manganese, zinc and copper are components of certain biological oxidation-reduction systems. Manganese performs some function in photosynthesis, acts as regulator to the intake and state of oxidation of certain elements. Zinc is concerned with the functioning of Sulphydryl compounds such as cystein, in the regulation of oxidation - reduction potential within the cells. Copper is a constituent of cytochrome oxidase and component of many enzymes like ascorbic acid oxidase, phenolase and lactase. Molybdenum is a constituent of nitrate reductase and nitrogenase enzyme and is associated with nitrogen utilization and in nitrogen fixation. Chlorine stimulates the activity of some enzymes and influences carbohydrate metabolism.
Boron helps in cell development by its influence on polysaccharide formation. It regulates translocation of sugars across membranes and polyphenolase activity. Iron is a constituent of cytochromes, haem and non haem enzymes. Perhaps the best known role of iron is its catalytic role in enzyme activity.
Fertilizers
Organic Fertilizers and Manures
Organic fertilizers include both plant and animal bi-products. They are slow acting. Organic nitrogen fertilizers include oil cakes, fish manure, dried blood from slaughter houses etc., where as organic phosphorus from bone meal and organic potassium from cattle dung ash, wood ash, leaf mould, tobacco stems and water hyacinth.
Organic manures
Manures are organic or inorganic substances applied to the soil to supply one or more nutrients to plants to obtain increased yields.
Manures are classified as follows
Inorganic Fertilizers
Nitrogen
Nitrogen is the first fertilizer element of the macronutrients usually applied in commercial fertilizers. Nitrogen is very important nutrient for plants and it seems to have the quickest and most pronounced effect.
Roles of nitrogen in plants
Nitrogen is of special importance in the formation of protein in plants,
It forms a constituent of every living cells in the plants,
It is also present in chlorophyll,
It is involved in photosynthesis, respiration and protein synthesis,
It plays an important role in vegetative growth and it imparts dark green colour to plants.
If excess nitrogen is applied it delays ripening by encouraging more vegetative growth. The leaves acquire a dark green colour, become thick and leathery and in some cases crinkled The plants become more liable to attack of pests and diseases. In case of cereal crops, the straw becomes weak, and the crop very often lodges and straw and grain ratio is increased. Excess nitrogen deteriorates the quality of some crops such as potato, barley and sugarcane. It delays reproductive growth and may adversely affect fruit and grain quality.
The deficiency of Nitrogen leads to formation of yellowish or light green coloured leaves and plant become stunted. The leaves and young fruits tend to drop prematurely. The kernels of cereals and the seed of other crops do not attain their normal size, and become shrivelled and light in weight.
Phosphorus
Phosphorus is the second fertilizer element and it is an essential constituent of every living cells and for the nutrition of plant and animal. It takes active part in all types of metabolism of plant. It is an essential constituent of majority of enzymes and also structural component of membrane system of cell, chloroplasts and the mitochondria. It is intimately associated with the life process.
Phosphorus stimulates root development and growth in the seedling stage and there by it helps to establish the seedlings quickly. It hastens leaf development and encourages greater growth of shoots and roots. It enhances the development of reproductive parts and thus bringing about early maturity of crops particularly the cereals. It increases the number of tillers in cereal crops and also strengthen the straw and thus helps to prevent the lodging. It stimulates the flowering, fruit setting and seed formation and the development of roots, particularly of root crops. Phosphorus has a special action on leguminous crops. It induces nodule formation and rhizobial activity.
Excess phosphorus leads to profuse root growth, particularly of the lateral and fibrous rootlets. It leads to some trace element deficiencies particularly iron and zinc.
Deficiency of phosphorus leads to restricted root and shoot growth, leaves may shed prematurely, flowering and fruiting may be delayed considerably. In case of potato tubers phosphorus deficiency leads to formation of rusty brown lessions.
Potassium
Potassium is the third fertilizer element. Potassium acts as a chemical traffic policeman, root booster, stalk strengthener, food former, sugar and starch transporter, protein builder, breathing regulator, water stretcher and as a disease retarder but it is not effective without its co-nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus.
Potassium is an essential element for the development of chlorophyll. It plays an important role in photosynthesis, i.e., converting carbon-dioxide and hydrogen into sugars, for translocation of sugars, and in starch formation. It improves the health and vigour of the plant, enabling it to withstand adverse climatic condition. It increases the crop resistance to certain diseases. Potash plays a key role in production of quality vegetables. Potassium is an enzyme activator and increases the plumpness and boldness of grains and seeds. It improves the water balance. Promotes metabolism and increases the production of carbohydrates.
Potassium deficiency causes stunting in growth with shortening of internodes and bushy in appearance, brings about chlorosis, i.e., yellowing of leaves and leaf scorch in case of fruit trees. It is also responsible for the 'dying back tips' of shoots. Its deficiency leads to reduction in photosynthesis, blackening of tubers in case of potato, tips or margin of lower leaves of legumes, maize, cotton, tobacco and small grains are either scorched or burnt.
Secondary nutrients
Secondary nutrients include calcium, magnesium and sulphur, which play an important role in plant growth and development. The details of these nutrients are given below.
Calcium
Calcium as calcium pectate is an important constituent of cell wall and required for cell division. It is a structural component of chromosomes. It includes stiffness to straw and there by tends to prevent lodging. It enhances the nodule formation in legumes, helps in translocation of sugars, neutralizes organic acids which may become poisonous to plants. It is an essential co-factor or an activator of number of enzymes. It improves the intake of other plant nutrients, specially nitrogen and trace elements by correcting soil pH. Excessive amounts of calcium can decrease the availability of many micronutrients.
Deficiency of calcium lead to 'Die back' at the tips and margins of young leaves. Normal growth of plants is arrested i.e., roots may become short, stubby and bushy, leaves become wrinkled and the young leaves of cereal crops remain folded. The acidity of cell sap increases abnormally and it hampers the physiological function of plant. As a result of which plant suffers and causes the death of plant at last.
Magnesium
Magnesium is an essential constituent of chlorophyll. Several photosynthetic enzymes present in chlorophyll requires magnesium as an activator. It is usually needed by plants for formation of oils and fats. It regulates the uptake of nitrogen and phosphorus from the soil. Magnesium may increase crop resistance to drought and disease.
Deficiency of magnesium leads to yellowing of the older leaves known as chlorosis. Acute deficiency of magnesium also causes premature defoliation. In case of maize the leaves develop interveinal white strips, in cotton they change to purplish red, veins remain dark green, in soybean they turn yellowish and in apple trees, brown patches (blotches) appear on the leaves.
sulphur
Sulphur has specified role in initiating synthesis of proteins. Sulphur is an important nutrient for oil seeds, crucifers, sugar and pulse crops. It is an essential constituent of many proteins, enzymes and certain volatile compounds such as mustard oil. It hastens root growth and stimulates seed formation. It is essential for the synthesis of certain aminoacids and oils. It can be called as master nutrient for oilseed production.
The deficiency of sulphur leads to slow growth with slender stalks, nodulation in legumes may be poor and nitrogen fixation is reduced. The young leaves turn yellow and the root and stems become abnormally long and develop woodiness. In case of fruit trees, the fruits become light green, thick skinned and less juicy. Sulphur deficient plant produces less protein and oil.
Micronutrients
Micronutrient elements are required by plants in very low concentration suggests that they all function as catalyst or atleast closely linked with some catalytic process in plants. Micronutrient elements include boron, copper, zinc, iron, manganese, molybdenum and chlorine.
Boron helps in cell development by its influence on polysaccharide formation. It regulates translocation of sugars across membranes and polyphenolase activity. Iron is a constituent of cytochrome, haem and non-haem enzymes. Perhaps the best known role of iron is its catalytic role in enzyme activity.
Copper, zinc and manganese are components of certain biological oxidation-reduction systems. Manganese performs some function in photosynthesis, acts as regulator to the intake and state of oxidation of certain elements.
Zinc is concerned with the formation of Sulphydryl compounds such as cystein in the regulation of oxidation-reduction potential within the cells. Molybdenum is a constituent of nitrate reductase and nitrogenase enzyme and is associated with nitrogen utilization and in nitrogen fixation. Chlorine stimulates the activity of some enzymes and influences carbohydrate metabolism.
Methods of cultivation
Season And Method Of Planting
Planting season varies with the area of cultivation and variety
Planting is done during May-June or July- August in different tracts.
In Kerala and other West Coast areas where rainfall is sufficiently early, the crop can be planted during April-May with the receipt of pre-monsoon showers.
In Andra Pradesh short duration varieties like Kasturi, planting is done during second fortnight of May, Medium duration varieties like Kesari planting is done during 1st fortnight of June.
Long duration varieties like Mydukur, planting is in 2nd fortnight of June to 2nd fortnight of July.
Spacing
Black heavy soils
45-60 cm X 22.5 cm
Red loamy soils
30 X 15 cm
Orissa
22.5 X 22.5
Over all the optimum spacing will be 45-60 cm between rows and 22.5 cm within the row.In case of planting in beds rhizomes are planted 25-35 cm apart in each direction.
Seed rate
Mother Rhizomes
2000-2500 kg/ha as a sole crop
Primary fingers
1500-2000 kg/ha as a sole crop
Fruit gardens
400-500 kg/ha as a inter crop
Seed material
It is necessary to store the seed rhizomes for 2-3 months from harvesting to planting.
This may be done by spreading them thinly under a cover of turmeric leaves or storing them by treating the rhizomes with 0.3 percent Dithane M-45 and 0.5 percent Malathion for 30 minutes before storing heaps under a layer of straw and soil.
Well-developed, healthy and disease free rhizomes are selected.
Whole or split mother rhizomes weighing 35 to 44 g are used for planting.
Systems Of Cultivation
Two system of cultivation are followed in different areas
Bed system (Raised or flat)
Ridge and furrow
The system of cultivation is dependent upon the intensity of rains and type of soil.
Bed system gives higher yields of 54-80%.
Bed system (Raised or flat)
Beds of 1m width and of conveinent length are prepared with a spacing of 0-50 cm between beds. In heavy rainfall areas and for heavy soils the beds are raised (15 cm)
Ridge and furrow method
Where natural drainage does not exist ridges of 23 cm height and furrows at a spacing of 45-60 cm are prepared.
In Andhra Pradesh both the methods are adopted . In Duggirala and surrounding areas ridge and furrow method is followed.
In Cuddapah zone flat bed system is followed on red loams, while in Godavari zone raised beds are laid out for planting rhizomes.
Method of Planting
Planting is done by dibbling rhizome in furrows behind the country plough.
The seeds are then covered with loose soil from the ridge.
In Andhra Pradesh the broad ridge method of planting is superior and more profitable than the ridge and furrow method, as the elevated beds provide better drainage.
The crop can be planted on flat beds or on ridges, on large scale potato planter can be used for turmeric planting.
Emergence of seedlings takes place 2-4 weeks after sowing.
Rotation and Mixed Cropping
Turmeric can be grown as an intercrop in coconut plantations.
In wetlands, it is grown in rotation with Rice, Sugarcane, Banana or Vegetables.
In garden lands, it is often in rotation with rainfed rice mixed with Pigionpea, Maize, yam or minor millets.
Turmeric can be rotated with crops such as Finger millet, Rice and Sugarcane.
It is rarely cultivated in pure stand, but is usually grown mixed with crops like Castor, Maize, Finger millet, Onions, Brinjal and Tomato.
Turmeric+Onion combination recorded an average yield of 16 to 20 tonnes of turmeric and 2,945 kilograms of onion, fetching the highest net income against net income obtained from monocropping of Turmeric.
This highly profitable finding should be seriously taken note of and implemented by progressive turmeric growers.
Weeding
Weeds are the main problem with turmeric (Curcuma longa L.) cultivation where herbicides are not allowed. This is because herbicides cause water contamination, air pollution, soil microorganism hazards, health hazards, and food risks. Considering turmeric's medicinal value and the environmental problems caused by herbicides, various agronomic practises have been evaluated for non-chemical weed control in turmeric. One additional weeding is required before turmeric emergence and weed infestation is much higher when turmeric is planted in February and March, as compared to April, May or June planting. A similarly higher yield of turmeric is achieved when it is planted in February, March, and April, compared to late plantings. Weed emergence and interference are not affected by planting depth, seed size, planting pattern, planting space, ridge spacing, and the row number of turmeric until 60days after planting. This is because turmeric cannot develop a canopy structure until then. Thereafter, weed infestation reduces similarly and significantly when turmeric is planted at depths of 8, 12, and 16cm, compared to shallower depths. The yield of turmeric at these depths is statistically the same, but the yield for the 16cm depth is difficult to harvest and it tends to decrease. Turmeric grown from seed rhizomes (daughter rhizomes) weighing 30–40g reduces weed infestation significantly and obtains a significantly higher yield compared to smaller seeds. The mother rhizome also can suppress weed infestation and increase the yield markedly. Around 9% weed control and 11% higher yield are achieved by planting turmeric in a triangular pattern compared to a quadrate pattern. The lowest weed infestation is found in turmeric grown in a 20 or 30cm triangular pattern and the highest yield is obtained with the 30cm triangular pattern. Turmeric gown on two-row ridges spaced 75cm apart shows excellent weed control efficiency and obtains the highest yield. This review concludes that turmeric seed rhizomes of 30–40g and/or the mother rhizome could be planted in a 30cm triangular pattern at the depth of 8–12cm on two-row ridges spaced 75–100cm apart during March to April in order to reduce weed interference and obtain a higher yield. Mulching also suppresses weed growth and improves the yield. The above agronomic practises could not control weeds completely; biological weed management practises could be integrated in turmeric fields using rabbits, goats, sheep, ducks, cover crops or intercrops.
Disease and pests
Good plant protection equipment.
Finally mostly farm based renewable resources that can enhance the recycling phenomenon of ecosystem should'PEST' is an organism that causes damage resulting in economic loss to a plant or animal. It can also be said that pest is a living organism that thrives at the expense of other living organism.
The expression of "Pest" is used very broadly to insects, other invertebrates like nematodes, mites, snails and slugs, etc., and vertebrates like rats, birds, jackals, etc., that cause damage to crops, stored products and animals.
Disease producing pathogens of plants and weeds are also referred as crop pests.
Integrated Pest Management Strategy
While developing IPM strategy one has to select different components that are readily available, economical and applicable at field level.
To cater the needs for location specific cropping systems the suitable technologies should be developed by Research workers from time to time.
The research findings that are practically implementable should be popularized by the Extension workers through education to farming community. Farmers have to be trained in scouting, diagnosis of pest infestation and arriving ETLs for need based chemical application in time.
Farmers should also be trained in selection of suitable pesticide, use of proper lethal dose and proper coverage of foliage to avoid risks of resistance, resurgence and residues. Farmers training is a continuous process and is an important integrated part for successful implementation of IPM.
An healthy, meaningful co-operation is very much needed from corporate pesticide industry to make IPM successful at farmers level. The pesticide industry should not wield enormous financial power and maintain market dominance against ecological and environmental safety.
When to use Crop Protection Chemicals
When adult activity is in increasing trend resulting in unacceptable pest load on crop as indicated by pheromone, light and sticky traps.
When field scouts fixed plot survey indicate a particular dominating stage of pest in the field.
When the bio-agents existing in the area did not attain a level, that can influence the pest population.
When insecticide resistance due to usage of insecticides does not surface practically.
When residues of insecticides do not become problematic.
When the role of bio-agents and other environmental resistance factors are less perceptible.
How can a Crop be monitored
A field crop is monitored to determine a pests economic status or to determine whether a natural enemy is at a level capable of suppressing a pest's population density. So identification of pests and beneficial insects is of prime importance before any control operation is executed.
Monitoring tools like pheromone, light and sticky traps can be advantageously used. Field scouting adopting fixed plot survey or roving survey should be taken from time to time to monitor the crop in determining whether the pest population attained ETLs.
Which Products Form Part of The Ipm Strategy
Different monitoring tools like pheromone traps, light traps, coloured sticky traps.
Preserved specimens of pests, natural enemies, infested plant portions as identification tools.
Bird perches.
Seed dressing chemicals and seed dressing machines.
Seeds of Resistant varieties.
Ecofriendly insecticides like Neem products and bio-fungicides like Trichoderma sp.
Natural enemies like Trichogramma egg cards, and microbial preparations of NPV & Bt.
Harvesting and yield
Depending upon the variety, the crop becomes ready for harvest in 7-9 months after planting.
Usually harvesting extends from January to March-April. Early varieties mature in 7-8 months and medium varieties in 8-9 months.
The crop is ready for harvesting when the leaves turn yellow and start drying up.
At the time of maturity, leaves are cut close to the ground, the land is ploughed and rhizomes are gathered by hand-picking or the clumps are carefully lifted with a spade.
The picked rhizomes are collected and cleaned. The mother and finger rhizomes are separated before curing.
The yield per hectare comes to 20,000 to 22,000 kilograms of green turmeric. Some of the high-yielding selections developed have recorded a yield of 35,000 of green turmeric per hectare.
Quality of cured turmeric is assessed on
The pigment (curcumin) content
The organoleptic character
The general appearance
Size and physical form of rhizome
Hence proper care is exercised while taking up processing the material.
Processing
It involves three-steps
Curing
Polishing
Colouring.
Curing
Fingers are separated from mother rhizomes and are usually kept as seed material.
The fresh turmeric is cured for obtaining dry turmeric before marketing.
Curing involves boiling of fresh rhizomes in water and drying in the sun.
The objective of boiling is to destroy the viability of the fresh rhizomes and to obviate the raw odour, to reduce the drying time, to gelatinize the starch for hardening the rhizomes and give a more uniform coloured product and an even distribution of colour in the rhizome.
In the traditional methods, the cleaned rhizomes are boiled in copper or galvanized iron or earthen vessels, with water just enough to soak them.
In regions of sugarcane where turmeric is cultivated the shallow pans used for gur boiling can be used for turmeric boiling also. If water is acidic, sodium bicarbonate is added to make it slightly alkaline.
In certain places, cowdung slurry is used as boiling medium. From hygienic point of view, such rhizomes fetch poor market value.
Boiling process should be done over a slow fire until they softened.
Boiling is stopped when froth comes out and white fumes appear giving out a typical odour when properly cooked, the rhizomes would be soft and yield when pressed between fingers.
The boiling lasts for 45 to 60 minutes when the rhizomes are soft. Over cooking spoils the colour of final product while under cooking renders the dried product brittle.
In the improved scientific methods of curing the cleaned fingers (approximately 50 kg) are taken in a perforated trough of size 0.9x0.55x0.4m, made of GI or MS sheet with extended parallel handle.
The perforated trough containing the fingers are then immersed in the pan. The alkaline solution (0.1% sodium carbonate or sodium bicarbonate) is poured into the trough so as to immerse the turmeric fingers.
The whole mass is boiled till the finger become soft. The cooked fingers are taken out of the pan by lifting the trough and draining the solution into the pan.
Alkalinity of the boiling water helps in imparting orange yellow tinge to the core of turmeric.
The drained solution in the pan can also be used for boiling another lot of turmeric along with the fresh solution prepared for the purpose.
The cooking of turmeric is to be done within two or three days after harvesting. The mother rhizomes and the fingers are generally cured separately.
The cooked fingers are dried in the sun by spreading 5 to 7 cm thick layers on bamboo mat or drying floor. A thinner layer is not desirable, as the colour of the dried product may be adversely affected.
During night time, the materials should be heaped or covered. It may take 10 to 15 days for the rhizomes to become completely dry.
The yield of the dry product varies from 20 to 30 percent depending upon the variety and the location where the crop is grown.
Polishing
· Dried turmeric has poor appearance and a rough dull outer surface with scales and root lets. The appearance is improved by smoothening and polishing outer surface by manual or mechanical rubbing.
Manual polishing
Consists of rubbing the dried turmeric fingers on a hard surface or trampling them under feet, wrapped in gunny bags.
Mechanical rubbing
The improved method is by using hand operated barrel or drum mounted on a central axis, the sides of which are made of expanded metal mesh.
When the drum filled with turmeric is rotated at 30 rpm, polishing is effected by abrasion of the surface against the mesh as well as by mutual rubbing against each other as they roll inside the drum.
The turmeric is also polished in power-operated drums. The yield of polished turmeric from the raw materials varies from 15 to 25 percent.
Colouring
It is done to give a good appearance and better finish to the product.
This is done to half polished rhizomes in two ways, known as dry and wet colouring. Turmeric powder is added to the polishing drum in the last 10 minutes in dry process.
In wet process, Turmeric powder is suspends in water and mixed by sprinkling inside the polishing basket.
For giving a brighter colour, the boiled, dried and half-polished fingers are taken in baskets which are shaken continuously when an emulsion is poured in.
When the fingers are uniformly coated with the emulsion they may be dried in the sun.
The composition of the emulsion required for coating 100 kg of half boiled turmeric is
Alum 0.04 kg,
Turmeric powder 2 kg
Castor seed oil 0.14 kg
Sodium bisulfate 30 g
Concentrated hydrochloric acid 30ml.
Improved method of curing
The Central Food Technological Research Institute, Mysore, has developed a simpler, hygienic and efficient technique of curing and colouring turmeric.
In this rhizomes are boiled in lime-water or sodium carbonate. A water solution containing 20 g sodium bisulphite and 20 g of hydrochloric acid per 45.3 kg of tubers is recommended to given them the desired yellow tint.
Packing and storage
Harvesting of crop is seasonal, but consumption of food grain is continuous. The market value of the produce is generally low at harvesting time. So the grower need storage facility to hold a portion of produce to meet the feed and seed requirements in addition of selling surplus produce when the marketing price is favourable.
Traders and Co-operatives at market centres need storage structures to hold grains when the transport facility is inadequate.
The government also needs storage structures to maintain buffer reserves to offset the effects produced by the vagaries of nature. Hence, there is necessity to store the produce for different periods primarily for commercial reasons. The growers, processors, transporters and warehouse men have to develop storage facilities for proper storage of food grains, oilseeds, commercial crops like Chillies, vegetables and fruits etc., and seeds intended for sowing in the following seasons.
An ideal storage facility should satisfy the following requirements
It should provide maximum possible protection from ground moisture, rains, insect pests, moulds, rodents, birds, fire, etc.,
It should provide the necessary facility for inspection, disinfection, loading, unloading, cleaning and reconditioning.
It should protect grain from excessive moisture and temperature favourable to both insect and mould development.
It should be economical and suitable for a particular situation.
Types of Storage
Holding grain in bulk in underground is an age old method of rural storage. Wheat, Paddy, Sorghum, Fingermillet, etc., can be stored underground for a period of 2 years. These structures are simple underground dig-outs upto a depth of 5 m varying in sizes to hold from a small quantity upto 50 tonnes.
The pits are lined with brick or concrete so that moisture from walls and bottom does not damage the grain. At the time of filling a layer of straw is placed on all sides.
After the pit is filled, straw is spread over the grain and then topped with a layer of soil. Insect infestation is less in the under ground storage and it is cheaper over above ground storage structures.
This underground structure is not suitable for high rainfall and high water-table areas. Further the grain stored underground have poor appearance and musty smell.
Several types of above ground storage structure mentioned below are also in use in our country.
Mud bins
The mud bins are made of unburnt clay mixed with straw with 1 to 3 inch thick wall and are oval, rectangular or circular. A small hole is provided at the base for taking out the grain and a larger hole is provided at the top for filling it with grain. Both the inlet and outlet holes are plugged while grain is stored.
Straw bins
For storing paddy in humid zones dried plants are used for making temporary structures, which after being filled with grain are further reinforced from outside by winding paddy straw ropes around the whole structure. Each structure holds 2 to 6 quintals of grain.
Bukhari bins
This is a cylindrical structure and is made of mud and split bamboo's. The bin is always placed on a wooden or a massonary plat form to prevent its contact with the ground. The capacity may vary from 3 to 10 tonnes.
Kothar type bins
These bins are very much similar to a timber box placed on a raised plat form, which is generally supported on pillars. Both the floor and walls are made of wooden planks, where the tiled or thatched roof is placed over it as a protection against sun and rains. The capacity may vary from 9 to 35 tonnes.
Metal bins
Bins made of steel, alluminium R.C.C are used for storage of grains outside the house. These bins are fire and moisture proof. The bins have long durability and produced on commercial scale. The capacity ranges from 1 to 10 tonnes. Silos are huge bins made with either steel, alluminium or concrete. Usually steel and alluminium bins are circular in shape. The capacity of silo ranges from 500 to 4000 tonnes. A silo has facilities for loading and unloading grains.
The storage structures in rural areas are not ideal from scientific-storage point of view, as substantial losses occur during storage of grain from insect pests, moulds, rodents, etc. ; keeping the requirements of the farmers in view the Indian grain storage institute (IGSI), Hapur with its branch at Ludhiana and Hyderabad have developed several metal bins of different capacities for scientific storage of grain in rural areas.
Methods of Storage
The grains are stored at three different levels, viz., at the producer's level (rural storage) trader's level and urban organizational storage. The urban organization uses modern facilities and structures like silos, warehouses and also undertaken periodical inspection, processing and treatment of grains for ensuring their quality during storage.
Generally, there are two ways of storing grains i.e.
Storage in bags and Loose or bulk storage.
In the tropical regions, the grain is stored in bags. Storage in bags requires considerable labour, but the minimum investment is enough on permanent structures and equipment. The storage in bags has the advantage of being short-term storage. Bag storage can be done under a roof of Galvanized Iron sheets, a plastic covering where grain is intended for very early onward movement. Usually no control measures against insects is needed for short-term storage. If bag storage produce is intended for long time, the control measures have to be taken against insect pests.
The bulk storage has an advantage of greater storage capacity per unit volume of space. Less labour is involved in loading and unloading and there is no need of investment in purchasing gunny bags. In bulk storage the insect infestation is also lower over bag storage. The grain can be kept for several years in bulk storage.
Properties
The active curcuminoid ingredients in turmeric can reduce inflammation in patients with rheumatoid arthritis, uveitis, and other autoimmune disorders.
Turmeric (Curcuma longa), a flowering plant in the ginger family, has been long used in Ayurvedic and Chinese medicine as an anti-inflammatory agent, a remedy for digestive disorders and liver problems, and as an effective treatment for skin diseases and wound healing. Today, in a large number of scientific studies, turmeric is being investigated in the United States for these medicinal properties, particularly its ability to reduce inflammation in patients with inflammatory rheumatic disease.
In addition, in one study, turmeric was also found to improve symptoms in the autoimmune eye disorder uveitis. In this study turmeric was shown to be as effective as corticosteroids but free of the side effects commonly associated with steroids.
Turmeric is native to Asia, where it grows as a perennial flowering plant. The aboveground and underground roots are used to produce turmeric powder for medicinal and food uses. With its distinct golden hue, turmeric is used as a food color and as a spice or flavor enhancer. Of note, turmeric is one of the principle ingredients in curry powder. The active ingredient in turmeric is a substance known as curcumin, which belongs to the family of curcuminoid compounds.
Although among Western researchers curcumin has only recently been studied in humans, it has been widely studied in animals for its protective effect on the liver, anti-tumor action, anti-inflammatory properties and its ability to fight infections. In contrast, in Ayurvedic medicine turmeric has been studied and used as a medicinal agent for thousands of years. A teaspoon of turmeric poweder in a cup of warm milk used three times daily has long been considered an effective Ayurvedic treatment for colds and influenza.
Because of its ability to induce bile flow, curcumin helps break down fats and increases the production of stomach acids. For this reason, turmeric should not be used in people diagnosed with gallstones or obstruction of the bile passages unless prescribed by a qualified practitioner.
Turmeric and Arthritis
A research study funded by the NIH's National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine (NCCAM) has explored the use of turmeric for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, an autoimmune condition affecting two million Americans. Rheumatoid arthritis, which is the most common of the autoimmune rheumatologic disorders, is characterized by joint swelling, pain, stiffness and a progressive loss of joint function.
In this study, conducted at the NCCAM-funded Center for Phytomedicine Research at the University of Arizona, researchers created symptoms of rheumatoid arthritis in laboratory rats that mimicked those seen in humans. Some of the rats were treated before developing inflammation and some were treated after inflammation developed with different preparations and dosages of turmeric extracts.
Results suggest that the most improvement, measured in terms of joint swelling, occurred in the rats given an extract containing only curcuminoids, the major components of turmeric, as opposed to more complex extracts containing curcuminoids plus other turmeric compounds (similar to commercially available supplements). The study's lead researcher, Dr. Janet Funk, noted that the curcuminoids-only formula also appeared safer and more effective at lower doses. Dr. Funk also noted greater effectiveness in the rats that were treated before signs of inflammation developed.
Dosage and Precautions
The usual recommended dose is 400-600 mg daily of turmeric tablets or capsules taken three times daily or as directed on the product label. Dr. Andrew Weil recommends products labeled as standard curcuminoids, cautioning that it can take up to two months before results are observed.
Turmeric should not be used in pregnancy and in patients with gallstones or bile duct obstructions unless it is under the advise of their physicians. The Center for Integrative Medicine at the University of Maryland cautions that while herbs are effective in strengthening the body and treating disease, they contain active substances that can trigger side effects and interact with other herbs, supplements, or medications. For this reason, they recommend that herbs should be taken with care, under the supervision of a practitioner knowledgeable in the field of botanical medicine. And while turmeric and curcumin are considered safe at recommended doses, they may produce stomach upset, and, used in very high doses, ulcers.
Standards and specifications
Turmeric Finger (Non Polished) Specification
Product details Turmeric Finger (Non Polished)
Grade Good
Flexibility Hard to touch
Broken pieces, (fingers<15mm)>
Foreign matter <>
Defectives <>
Percentage of bulbs by weight. <>
Starch content, max, w/w 60 %
Curcumin content 4 - 5 %
Turmeric Finger (Polished) Specification
Product details Turmeric Finger (Polished)
Grade Good
Flexibility Hard to touch
Broken pieces, (fingers<15mm)>
Foreign matter <>
Defectives <>
Percentage of bulbs by weight, max. <>
Starch content, max, w/w 60 %
Curcumin content 4 - 5 %
Turmeric Powder Specification
Product Details
Product name Turmeric Powder
Genus/species Curcuma longa
Parts used Rhizomes, Tubers
Grade Standard
Color and appearance Orange
Organoleptic characters Characteristic taste & aroma
Physio-Chemical Analysis
Extraneous matter (% w/w) <>
Moisture (% w/w) max 5
Total ash (% w/w) max 5
Acid insoluble ash (% w/w) max 1.5
Starch content, (% w/w) max 60
Chromate test Negative
Curcumin content, (% w/w) 4 - 5
Heavy Metals
Lead, max (ppm) 2.5
Arsenic, max (ppm) 1
Microbial Profile
Total Plate Count, cfu/gm <>
Yeast & Mould, cfu/gm <>
Salmonella Absent
E. Coli Absent
Production and trade
The main producing countries of turmeric include India, Pakistan and Bangladesh. India is the biggest producer, supplying some 20,000 t each year. It enters the international market in the form of dried whole rhizomes, or as ground rhizomes. The major importers of this spice are Iran, Sri Lanka, Middle Eastern and North African countries.
It is cultivated commercially as an annual crop, by planting small rhizomes or pieces of rhizome either on flat soil or in furrows between ridges. The growing plants require heavy manuring to get the best yield possible.
Turmeric is ready for harvesting 7 to 10 months after planting, when the lower leaves turn yellow. Harvesting is done by digging the rhizomes up. Leafy tops are then cut off and the roots and adhering earth is removed. Rhizomes are then washed. Some of these are retained for replanting as a future crop. The remainder are processed into turmeric.
To develop the yellow colour and characteristic aroma, cleaned rhizomes are cooked in boiling water for one hour under slightly alkaline conditions. The cooked rhizomes are then dried either artificially or in the sun for 6 to 8 days. Dried rhizomes are polished to smooth their exterior and also to improve the colour. They are then sold in this form or ground into a powder.
Adulteration and substitutes
In India, the deliberate contamination and bulking out of turmeric is a serious problem in local markets. On an international scale, the problems may not be so serious, but closely related species are frequently substituted for true turmeric. Fortunately, chemical analysis can to some extent establish how pure a product is.
Ground turmeric is the most vulnerable product, particularly in local markets. Here, it is not uncommon to find turmeric powder adulterated with lead chromate, yellow earth, sand or even cheap talc.
In the international market, concern over possible adulteration is associated mainly with the mixing of related Curcuma species containing similar pigments. Species that have been used as a substitute include C. xanthorrhiza, C. aromatica and C. zedoaria.
In Asian producing countries, these three species are used as a source of starch, dyes and in folk medicine as a substitute for true turmeric. It is often difficult to identify these species by microscopic examination of the powder. But, adulteration of true turmeric by C. aromatica and C. zedoaria can be detected by chemical methods.
Uses
Turmeric powder is used extensively in Indian cuisine.
Commercially packaged turmeric powder
In non-Indian recipes, turmeric is sometimes used as a coloring agent. It has found application in canned ,beverages baked products, dairy products, , yogurt,ice cream yellow cakes, orange juice, biscuits, popcorn color, sweets, cake icings, cereals, sauces, gelatins, etc. It is a significant ingredient in most commercial curry powders.
Turmeric is used to protect food products from sunlight. The oleoresin is used for oil-containing products. The curcumin/polysorbate solution or curcumin powder dissolved in alcohol is used for water containing products. Over-coloring, such as in pickles, relishes and mustard, is sometimes used to compensate for fading.
In combination with turmeric has been used to color cheeses, yogurt, dry mixes, salad dressings, winter butter and margarine. Turmeric is also used to give a yellow color to some prepared mustards, canned chicken broths and other foods (often as a much cheaper replacement for saffron).
Turmeric is widely used as a spice in South Asian and Middle Eastern cooking. Momos (Nepali meat dumplings), a traditional dish in South Asia, are spiced with turmeric.
Medicinal uses
Turmeric plant
In Ayurvedic medicine, turmeric is thought to have many medicinal properties and many in India use it as a readily available antiseptic for cuts, burns and bruises. Practitioners of Ayurvedic medicine say it has fluoride which is thought to be essential for teeth. It is also used as an antibacterial agent.
It is taken in some Asian countries as a dietary supplement, which allegedly helps with stomach problems and other ailments. It is popular as a tea in Okinawa, Japan. It is currently being investigated for possible benefits in Alzheimer's disease, cancer and liver disorders.
Turmeric rhizome
It is only in recent years that Western scientists have increasingly recognised the medicinal properties of turmeric. According to a 2005 article in the Wall Street Journal titled, "Common Indian Spice Stirs Hope," research activity into curcumin, the active ingredient in turmeric, is exploding. Two hundred and fifty-six curcumin papers were published in the past year according to a search of the U.S. National Library of Medicine. Supplement sales have increased 35% from 2004, and the U.S. National Institutes of Health has four clinical trials underway to study curcumin treatment for pancreatic cancer, multiple myeloma, Alzheimer's, and colorectal cancer.2004 UCLA-Veterans Affairs study involving genetically altered mice suggests that curcumin, the active ingredient in turmeric, might inhibit the accumulation of destructive beta amyloids in the brains of Alzheimer's disease patients and also break up existing plaques. "Curcumin has been used for thousands of years as a safe anti-inflammatory in a variety of ailments as part of ," Gregory Cole, Professor of medicine and David Geffen School of Medicine at the at UCLA said.
Another 2004 study conducted at Yale University involved oral administration of curcumin to mice homozygous for the most common allele implicated in cystic fibrosis. Treatment with curcumin restored physiologically-relevant levels of protein function.
Anti-tumoral effects against melanoma cells have been demonstrated.
A recent study involving mice has shown that turmeric slows the spread of breast cancer into lungs and other body parts. Turmeric also enhances the effect of taxol in reducing metastasis of breast cancer.
Curcumin is thought to be a powerful antinociceptive agent (pain reliever). In the November 2006 issue of Arthritis & Rheumatism, a study was published that showed the effectiveness of turmeric in the reduction of joint inflammation, and recommended clinical trials as a possible treatment for the alleviation of arthritis symptoms.It is thought to work as a natural inhibitor of the cox-2 enzyme, and has been shown effective in animal models for neuropathic pain secondary to diabetes, among others.
Presenting their findings at the Endocrine Society’s annual meeting in San Francisco in June 2008, researchers discovered that turmeric-treated mice were less susceptible to developing type 2 diabetes, based on their blood glucose levels, and glucose and insulin tolerance tests. They also discovered that turmeric-fed obese mice showed significantly reduced inflammation in fat tissue and liver compared to controls. They speculate that curcumin in the turmeric lessens insulin resistance and prevents type 2 diabetes in these mouse models by dampening the inflammatory response provoked by obesity.
Cosmetics
Turmeric is currently used in the formulation of some sunscreens. Turmeric paste is used by some Indian women to keep them free of superfluous hair. Turmeric paste is applied to bride and groom before marriage in some places of India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan, where it is believed turmeric gives glow to skin and keeps some harmful bacteria away from the body.
The government of Thailand is funding a project to extract and isolate tetrahydrocurcuminoids (THC) from turmeric. THCs (not to be confused with tetrahydrocannabinol, also known as THC) are colorless compounds that might have antioxidant and skin-lightening properties and might be used to treat skin inflammations, making these compounds useful in cosmetics formulations.
Dye
Turmeric makes a poor fabric dye as it is not very lightfast (the degree to which a dye resists fading due to light exposure). However, turmeric is commonly used in Indian clothing, such as a sari.
Gardening
Turmeric can also be used to deter ants. The exact reasons why turmeric repels ants is unknown, but anecdotal evidence suggests it works.
Reference:
Turmeric, Center for Integrative Medicine, University of Maryland Medical Center, http://www.umm.edu/altmed/ConsHerbs/Turmericch.html
Dr. Andrew Weil Question and Answer Library, http://www.drweil.com/drw/u/QA/QA142972/
www.herbs2000.com
www.ikisan.com.com
www.ingentaconnect.com
www.organic.co.in
www.plantculture.org
www.wikipedia.com
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Friday, November 14, 2008
LOCKED HAND
This are the hands of the environment student which is in the tour to learn about the status of the alternative power in nepal.but instead of doing his work he is busy in taking snaps and is enjoing as if he is in holiday.Now you can imagine why our environment is degrading day by day......Read more...
YASTO PANI ROOM
Don't get scared this is not animated or is hypothetical.It is a real image .This is the room of lale.It took exactly10hrs to clean the room and 4 workers .how same of him that he is still sleeping in the room with all the paper scatterd here and there.What do you think of lale?.........
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HANDS TO SAVE ENVIRONMENT
there are many hands that work to save the environment .One of them is that of pharmacist. KU pharmacist students are not working towards the development of the pharmaceutical industry and activities related to the pharmacy but are equally involved in the protection of the environment.he is helping to save the environment by carrying the bag of the environment student.guess whose bag is it and you will win the prize from roshan(urf hawa)
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Monday, November 10, 2008
Saturday, November 8, 2008
PHARMACY DEPARTMENT
This is the department of pharmacy which yearly produce new pharmacist.Research lab, sophisticated microbiology lab and pharmacognosy lab with classes for the student to read. It is a quiet and sound place to read and develop ones future.
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HIDDEN TALENT
No matter who you are where you are your talent search the destination.There are the emerging talent in our university who are looking ahead in search of the opportunity and council to get going.
Kathmandu university not only produce the pharmacist but also provides a background in the development of one's carrier in extra activity.Here is an example of that.Roshan (Hawa) the emerging drummer and shikhar as the lead guitarist.
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FUTURE PHARMACIST "BATCH 07"
This are the future pharmacist which will lead to the submit of health science and will contribute for the healthy nepal.It is not only the responsibility of the pharmacist to make all go well.Let's think that its our responsibility.It is the responsibility of the whole Nepal and it's people and lets join our hand together to make a sound and prosphorus Nepal.If you walk one step we will walk two .
kathmandu university pharmacy student's.
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Friday, November 7, 2008
POKHARA
Let me know you all that i am from Pokhara. My home town.It is renound for its beauty and fasinating culture. Cultural diversity and love of the people is one of the most important aspect.If you are a real nepalese you should once in your life visit pokhara.It is better you see yourself rathe r then i describe it myself.
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Wednesday, November 5, 2008
FOOTBALL FINAL
B.Pharmacy 2nd year have registered their victory over 3rd year in a breath taking football final match.They started the scoring goal at the two min after the play started.In the sensational cross ball from Pravat Ranjan Napit, Striker Roshan K.C turned into a easy goal.In the second half taking the corner of Prajwol Karmaracharya suside goal was commited.In the dyeing moment of the game prajol with his superb finish regestered the 3-0 victory over 3rd year.
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